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Par uspeak le 2 Mars 2009 à 01:06
Voici donc pour commencer cette rubrique grammaire, un glossaire des principaux termes utilisés. J'ai préféré vous le communiquer en anglais directement, ainsi vous apprendrez de nouveaux termes et cela sera excellent pour votre vocabulaire. En cas de problème de compréhension reportez-vous à la rubrique LECTURE ; Short quotes et servez-vous des traducteurs en ligne.
Abbreviation<o:p></o:p>
An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word or expression. <o:p></o:p>
CT and Conn. are abbreviations for Connecticut. <o:p></o:p>
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Absolute Modifiers<o:p></o:p>
Unique and Other Absolute Modifiers <o:p></o:p>
Unique means "one of a kind." Therefore, comparatives, superlatives, and words like very, so, or extremely should not be used to modify it. If it is one of a kind, it cannot be compared! <o:p></o:p>
Incorrect: He is a very unique personality. <o:p></o:p>
Correct: He is a unique personality. <o:p></o:p>
This same logic applies to other words which reflect some kind of absolute: absolute, overwhelmed, straight, opposite, right, dead, entirely, eternal, fatal, final, identical, infinite, mortal, opposite, perfect, immortal, finite, or irrevocable. <o:p></o:p>
In most cases they cannot be modified by very and similar words, nor can they be used in comparisons. <o:p></o:p>
Many times there is a similar word which is not absolute. For example, instead of using the word unique in the above example use a similar word that is not absolute. <o:p></o:p>
Incorrect: He has a more unique personality than Marie. <o:p></o:p>
Correct: He has a more distinctive personality than Marie. <o:p></o:p>
EXERCICES / <o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-2136.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-3708.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-13445.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-54161.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-5910.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/forum/lire.php?num=3&msg=39001&titre=Superlatif-comparatif<o:p></o:p>
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Accented Syllables<o:p></o:p>
In all dialects of English, the pattern of pronunciation depends not only on the sounds of the vowels and consonants, but also on the stress each syllable receives when pronounced. A syllable that is stressed in pronunciation is called an accented syllable. <o:p></o:p>
The accent often changes the meaning of words which otherwise would be pronounced or even spelled alike. The word object when accented on the first syllable is a noun; when accented on the second syllable it is a verb. <o:p></o:p>
Here is another subtle example: <o:p></o:p>
A crow is a black bird.
(Accent both black and bird.) <o:p></o:p>A crow is not a blackbird.
(That is, a species of bird called blackbird. Accent black.) <o:p></o:p>All English dictionaries show the accented syllables in their pronunciation keys, usually with an acute accent mark (´).<o:p></o:p>
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EXERCICES /<o:p></o:p>
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http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-1/exercice-anglais-395.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/cgi2/myexam/liaison.php?liaison=_accent_<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/forum/lire.php?num=6&msg=36716&titre=Stress+and+accent<o:p></o:p>
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Acronym<o:p></o:p>
Pronounced Abbreviations <o:p></o:p>
Use all capitals and no periods to abbreviate names and titles when the abbreviations are pronounced letter by letter. <o:p></o:p>
Examples: NFL NEA AFL-CIO CBS IRS IRA TV <o:p></o:p>
Use all capitals and no periods for acronyms. Acronyms are abbreviations which have been made into pronounced words. <o:p></o:p>
Examples: OPEC NAFTA NATO BASIC SCUBA <o:p></o:p>
Using abbreviations such as these is fine in standard writing, but it is a good idea to identify the acronym or abbreviation for your audience the first time word by word so that there is no misunderstanding. <o:p></o:p>
Example:He got into trouble because of his involvement in an Individual Retirement Account at work. His IRA went over the limit, and he owed some back taxes. <o:p></o:p>
(Spelling the name out the first time helps just in case, for example, someone were thinking of the Irish Republican Army!) <o:p></o:p>
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Passive Voice: The project was reviewed by the committee. <o:p></o:p>
Active Voice: The committee reviewed the project. <o:p></o:p>
EXERCICES /<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-1986.php<o:p></o:p>
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Ambiguous <o:p></o:p>
When something is ambiguous it has more than one possible meaning. <o:p></o:p>
Writing should strive to be clear. Avoid ambiguity if you want your reader to be sure of what you are saying. <o:p></o:p>
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Antecedent <o:p></o:p>
The antecedent of a pronoun is the word which the pronoun stands for. In the first sentence on this page the pronoun which is taking the place of word. Therefore, word is the antecedent. <o:p></o:p>
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Appositive <o:p></o:p>
An appositive is a noun, noun phrase, or noun clause which follows a noun or pronoun and renames or describes the noun or pronoun. A simple appositive is an epithet like Alexander the Great. Appositives are often set off by commas. <o:p></o:p>
Example: We visited the home of Harriet Beecher Stowe, the author of Uncle Tom's Cabin.
(The underlined portion is the appositive.)<o:p></o:p><o:p></o:p>
Archaic or Archaism <o:p></o:p>
Archaic means "old fashioned" or "no longer in use." When applied to language, it refers to a word, phrase, or usage that is either no longer used in the language or whose meaning has significantly changed. <o:p></o:p>
Archaism is the noun form, referring to an old-fashioned or obsolete use of a word, phrase, or usage. <o:p></o:p>
Example: The word thou, the singular form of you, is an archaism. <o:p></o:p>
Example: The word prevent has an archaic meaning of "precede;" today it means "hinder." <o:p></o:p>
Some dictionaries use the word obsolete when referring to archaisms. <o:p></o:p>
Article <o:p></o:p>
In grammar, an article is a type of adjective which makes a noun specific or indefinite. In English there are three articles: the definite article the and the two indefinite articles a and an. <o:p></o:p>
In writing, an article is a brief nonfiction composition such as is commonly found in periodicals. <o:p></o:p>
See Titles of Things and Quotation Marks with Titles for information on punctuating the titles of articles. <o:p></o:p>
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Capital Letters and Capitalizing <o:p></o:p>
Capital Letters are the larger letters used at the beginning of sentences and names. They are the letters made on a typewriter when the "Shift" key is pressed. <o:p></o:p>
To capitalize a word means "to make the first letter of the word a capital letter." See the Capitalization Rules topic in the Grammar Contents for more on when to capitalize. <o:p></o:p>
Capital letters are sometimes called Upper Case letters. <o:p></o:p>
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Clause <o:p></o:p>
A clause is a group of words containing a subject and verb which forms part of a sentence. The first sentence on this page is made up of two clauses: the first clause from "A clause" to "verb," the second from "which" to the end. <o:p></o:p>
It is usually connected to the other part of the Sentence by a Conjunction. It is not a complete sentence on its own.<o:p></o:p>
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Cliche <o:p></o:p>
A cliche is a trite or overused word or expression. A cliche has lost much of its original meaning through overuse. <o:p></o:p>
Unless you have a specific reason to do so, avoid cliches. <o:p></o:p>
This word came from the French and is sometimes spelled with an acute accent on the final e: cliché. <o:p></o:p>
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Comparative Degree <o:p></o:p>
Adjectives and adverbs ending in -er or modified by the word more compare two items. This is known as the comparative degree. <o:p></o:p>
EXERCICES / http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-39305.php<o:p></o:p>
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Complement <o:p></o:p>
The word complement has the same root as the word complete. <o:p></o:p>
A complement is a word that follows a verb and completes the meaning of the sentence or verbal phrase. In English, the complements are direct object, indirect object, predicate nominative, predicate adjective, and object complement. <o:p></o:p>
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Complex and Compound-Complex Sentences <o:p></o:p>
A complex sentence is a sentence made up of one main clause and at least one subordinate clause. <o:p></o:p>
A compound-complex sentence is a sentence made up of more than one main clause and at least one subordinate clause. It is the combining of a compound sentence with a complex sentence. <o:p></o:p>
EXERCICES /<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-43950.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-31113.php<o:p></o:p>
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Compound Constructions <o:p></o:p>
The term compound is used to describe the combining of similar grammatical units in a number of circumstances. <o:p></o:p>
A compound sentence is a sentence made up of two or more independent clauses. The clauses are joined by conjunctions and/or distinctive punctuation marks. <o:p></o:p>
A compound subject is a subject made up of two or more different subjects acting on the same predicate. <o:p></o:p>
A compound verb is a simple predicate with two or more different verbs showing different actions or conditions. <o:p></o:p>
Both compound subjects and compound verbs are joined by conjunctions, sometimes with additional punctuation. <o:p></o:p>
A compound modifier is two or more adjectives or adverbs modifying a single word or phrase. They are normally joined by conjunctions or punctuation marks. <o:p></o:p>
A compound word is a single word made up of two or more distinct words combined into that single word. The word blackbird is a compound word made up of the words black and bird. <o:p></o:p>
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Compound Sentence <o:p></o:p>
A compound sentence is a sentence made up of two or more independent clauses but no subordinate clauses. <o:p></o:p>
The clauses in a compound sentence are usually joined by conjunctions and/or some kind of punctuation. <o:p></o:p>
Contraction <o:p></o:p>
A contraction is a word shortened by leaving out some letters. The missing letters are indicated by an apostrophe. <o:p></o:p>
Examples: don't for do not o'clock for of the clock <o:p></o:p>
EXERCICES / LIENS COURS<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-3925.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-5705.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-11331.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-49899.php<o:p></o:p>
Dangling Modifiers <o:p></o:p>
A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause which says something different from what is meant because words are left out. The meaning of the sentence, therefore, is left "dangling." <o:p></o:p>
Incorrect: While driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall toward Wendy H's car.
(It sounds like the tree was driving! This actually appeared in a newspaper article. An alert reader wrote, "Is the Department of Motor Vehicles branching out and issuing licenses to hardwoods? Have they taken leaf of their senses?") <o:p></o:p>Adding a word or two makes the sentence clear. <o:p></o:p>
Correct: While Wendy H was driving on Greenwood Avenue yesterday afternoon, a tree began to fall toward her car.<o:p></o:p>
When a modifier "dangles" so that the sentence is meaningless (or means something other than your intent), restate it and add the words it needs in order to make sense. <o:p></o:p>
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Declarative Sentence <o:p></o:p>
A declarative sentence states an idea. It does not give a command or request, nor does it ask a question. The sentences on this page are all declarative sentences. A declarative sentence usually ends in a period, though it may end in an exclamation point. <o:p></o:p>
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Demonstratives <o:p></o:p>
A demonstrative is a pronoun or adjective which points out which item is being referred to. <o:p></o:p>
In English there are only four demonstratives: this, that, these, and those. <o:p></o:p>
A demonstrative pronoun is a demonstrative used in the place of a noun. <o:p></o:p>
A demonstrative adjective is a demonstrative used to modify a noun. <o:p></o:p>
Demonstrative pronoun: May I see that? <o:p></o:p>
Demonstrative adjective: May I see that book? <o:p></o:p>
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Subordinate Clause <o:p></o:p>
A subordinate clause is usually introduced by a subordinating element such as a subordinating conjunction or relative pronoun. It depends on the rest of the sentence for its meaning. It does not express a complete thought, so it does not stand alone. It must always be attached to a main clause that completes the meaning. <o:p></o:p>
Subordinate clauses normally act as single part of speech. They can be either noun clauses, adjective clauses, or adverb clauses. <o:p></o:p>
They are sometimes called dependent clauses because they "depend" on a main clause to give them meaning. <o:p></o:p>
The italicized clauses above are subordinate clauses. The first one is an adjective clause because it describes a noun (the word clause). The second one is an adverb clause which describes a verb (the word called). <o:p></o:p>
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Direct Address <o:p></o:p>
A direct address is the name of the person (normally) who is being directly spoken to. <o:p></o:p>
It is always a proper noun. It does not have any grammatical relationship to any part of the sentence. It is set off by commas. <o:p></o:p>
Example: What do you think of this, Georgia? <o:p></o:p>
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Direct Object <o:p></o:p>
A direct object is a noun or pronoun that receives the action of a verb or shows the result of the action. It answers the question "What?" or "Whom?" after an action verb. An action verb with a direct object is called a transitive verb. The direct objects on this page are italicized. <o:p></o:p>
Notice each question being answered: "Receives what?" "The action"; "Shows what?" "The question"; etc. <o:p></o:p>
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Quotations Marks in Direct Quotations <o:p></o:p>
When a person or work is quoted directly and word for word, the quotation is placed in quotation marks. <o:p></o:p>
An indirect quotation in which the substance but not exact wording is used does not take quotations marks. <o:p></o:p>
Correct: Macbeth said, "All our yesterdays have lighted fools the way to dusty death."
(A direct quotation) <o:p></o:p>Incorrect: Macbeth said that, "Their past actions lead fools to death."
(Contains the substance, but not exact words. Quotation marks are not used.) <o:p></o:p>Correct: Macbeth said that their past actions lead fools to death. <o:p></o:p>
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The Ellipsis <o:p></o:p>
The ellipsis is three periods in a row. It signifies that words or figures are missing. Most frequently an ellipsis is used with quotations. It may come at the middle or end of a quotation. It may be used at the beginning of a quotation if the quotation begins mid-sentence and there is an appropriate lead-in. <o:p></o:p>
In mathematics an ellipsis shows that numbers have been left out. This is usually used in decimals, series, and matrices. <o:p></o:p>
Quotation:"Sometimes I'm ancient. I'm afraid of children my own age. They kill each other. Did it always use to be that way? My uncle says no. Six of my friends have been shot in the last year alone. Ten of them died in car wrecks. I'm afraid of them and they don't like me because I'm afraid. My uncle says his grandfather remembered when children didn't kill each other. But that was a long time ago when they had things different. They believed in responsibility, my uncle says." <o:p></o:p>
Ellipsis in middle: "I'm afraid of children my own age. They kill each other. Did it always use to be that way? My uncle says no...My uncle says his grandfather remembered when children didn't kill each other. But that was a long time ago when they had things different. They believed in responsibility, my uncle says." <o:p></o:p>
Ellipsis at end: "My uncle says his grandfather remembered when children didn't kill each other. But that was a long time ago..."
(Some authorities use four periods instead of three when the ellipsis is at the end or if more than a paragraph has been left out.) <o:p></o:p>Ellipsis at beginning: Clarisse said her uncle's grandfather "...remembered when children did not kill each other." <o:p></o:p>
Mathematical: 3.14159... <o:p></o:p>
EXERCICES / LIENS COURS<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-9792.php<o:p></o:p>
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Elliptical Clause <o:p></o:p>
An elliptical clause is a clause in which some words have been left out. Because of the pattern or logic of the entire sentence, it is clear what the missing words are. <o:p></o:p>
An elliptical clause may be either independent or subordinate. <o:p></o:p>
Example: Jessica had five dollars; Monica, three.
(The verb had was dropped from the second clause, but the meaning is still clear.) <o:p></o:p>He did not stay home today. <o:p></o:p>
Exclamation <o:p></o:p>
An exclamation is a word, phrase, or sentence spoken with great emotion or intensity. <o:p></o:p>
An exclamation is normally punctuated with an exclamation point at the end. <o:p></o:p>
Formal Language <o:p></o:p>
Formal language or style is what is used in most writing and business situations. It does not presume there is a personal or intimate relationship. <o:p></o:p>
For example, while there is nothing grammatically incorrect about most verb contractions, they should be avoided in formal writing unless a personal statement is being directly quoted. They would be a sign of either a more casual attitude towards the reader or a close personal relationship with the reader. <o:p></o:p>
One simple guideline that helps many times--if you ought to type it, it's formal. <o:p></o:p>
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Fragments and Fragmentary Responses <o:p></o:p>
A sentence fragment is a group of words which sounds like a sentence but does not express a complete thought. Sometimes it has a subject or verb missing. Sometimes it is a phrase or subordinate clause instead of a complete sentence. <o:p></o:p>
Sentence fragments are normally not only grammatically incorrect but also difficult to understand. <o:p></o:p>
The one type of fragment which may be acceptable at least in conversation is a fragmentary response. This is a sentence fragment which answers a question or otherwise responds to a situation in such a way that its meaning is understood even though it is not a complete sentence. <o:p></o:p>
Fragmentary responses should be avoided except in dialogue or very casual writing. <o:p></o:p>
Example:<o:p></o:p>
"Who was that woman with you last night?" <o:p></o:p>
"Sandy." <o:p></o:p>
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He Said/She Said Clause <o:p></o:p>
A he said/she said clause is simply a clause which tells who is speaking. It is either introducing, in the middle of, or ending a direct quotation . <o:p></o:p>
It normally has a subject, the speaker of the quotation, and a verb like said which tells what specific act of speaking was made.<o:p></o:p>
Examples (he said/she said clause in italics):<o:p></o:p>
Jonah said,"Why don't we go out tonight?" <o:p></o:p>
"I don't know," Mindy replied."I have a lot of work to do." <o:p></o:p>
"Maybe I can help you with the work," he suggested. <o:p></o:p>
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Imperative Sentence <o:p></o:p>
An imperative sentence asks, requests, or commands someone to do something. An imperative sentence drops the subject. <o:p></o:p>
Sometimes when simply the verb of an imperative sentence is referred to, it is said to be in the imperative mood. <o:p></o:p>
Examples: Go away! <o:p></o:p>
Please go away. <o:p></o:p>
John, come here please.
(John is not the subject but a direct address.) <o:p></o:p><o:p></o:p>
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Main or Independent Clause <o:p></o:p>
A main clause is a clause that is not introduced by a subordinating term. It does not modify anything, and it can stand alone as a complete sentence. <o:p></o:p>
The main clauses in the first two sentences of this page are italicized. The second sentence has two main clauses, one before the comma and one after. Main clauses are sometimes called principal or independent clauses. <o:p></o:p>
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Indirect Object <o:p></o:p>
An indirect object precedes the direct object and tells to whom or for whom the action of the verb is done and who is receiving the direct object. There must be a direct object to have an indirect object. Indirect objects are usually found with verbs of giving or communicating like give, bring, tell, show, take, or offer. An indirect object is always a noun or pronoun which is not part of a prepositional phrase. <o:p></o:p>
Example: She gave me the report. <o:p></o:p>
(Who received the report? Me.) <o:p></o:p>
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Question Marks <o:p></o:p>
Question marks end all direct questions. This includes incomplete questions and statements intended as questions. <o:p></o:p>
Direct Question: What is your name? <o:p></o:p>
Incomplete Question: Really? When? No kidding? <o:p></o:p>
Statement Intended as Question: Your name is Fred? <o:p></o:p>
Sentences which describe a question but do not directly ask a question are called indirect questions. They do not take a question mark. <o:p></o:p>
Incorrect: He asked if he could leave early?
(Describes but does not ask a question) <o:p></o:p>Correct: He asked if he could leave early. <o:p></o:p>
Correct: He asked, "May I leave early?"
(In the last one, the question is directly quoted.) <o:p></o:p>Use a question mark in parentheses after a point of fact to show uncertainty about it. Use sparingly and only for items impossible to verify. <o:p></o:p>
Example: His great-great-grandfather (Nelson Bridger?) supposedly fought in the Black Hawk War. <o:p></o:p>
Example: Chaucer was born in 1343 (?).
(Note that a question mark used this way is not an end mark. A period is still needed.) <o:p></o:p><o:p></o:p>
Indirect Quotation <o:p></o:p>
An indirect quotation is when the meaning but not the exact words of something someone spoke is referred to. <o:p></o:p>
Quotation marks are not used with indirect quotations. <o:p></o:p>
Indirect quotations frequently begin with that or if. They may have no relative pronoun or subordinating conjunction introducing them. <o:p></o:p>
Direct Quotation: Mike said, "I am hungry." <o:p></o:p>
Indirect Quotation: Mike said that he was hungry. <o:p></o:p>
Mike said he was hungry. <o:p></o:p>
Direct Quotation: "Are you coming?" she asked me. <o:p></o:p>
Indirect Quotation: She asked me if I were coming. <o:p></o:p>
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Informal Language <o:p></o:p>
Informal language or style is what is used in casual conversation. It is used in writing only when there is a personal or intimate relationship. <o:p></o:p>
Virtually all business writing is formal, not informal. <o:p></o:p>
Informal writing still must be grammatically correct. <o:p></o:p>
One simple guideline that helps many times--if you ought to type it, it's not informal. <o:p></o:p>
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Interrogative Sentence <o:p></o:p>
An interrogative sentence is a sentence that asks a direct question. <o:p></o:p>
It is punctuated with a question mark at the end. <o:p></o:p>
In English an interrogative sentence normally changes the word order so that the verb or part of the verb comes before the subject. <o:p></o:p>
Example: Do you like this? <o:p></o:p>
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Irony <o:p></o:p>
Irony is the state that occurs when what happens or what exists is the opposite of what is expected. <o:p></o:p>
Verbal irony is specifically when a person says something that is contrary to fact in order to make a point rather than to deceive. Sarcasm is a type of verbal irony. <o:p></o:p>
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Jargon <o:p></o:p>
Jargon is the specialized language of a particular trade or group. <o:p></o:p>
It is best to avoid jargon unless you are using the words in a specialized way to someone who belongs to the trade or group that uses the word. <o:p></o:p>
For example, avoid a technical word like parameter in non-technical speech or writing. <o:p></o:p>
Ligature <o:p></o:p>
A ligature is two or more connected letters to indicate a single sound. This is used in some language such as Latin. Sometimes the ligatures of a and e (æ) or o and e (œ) are used in English in words that derive from Latin or Greek. <o:p></o:p>
This practice is more common in England than America. <o:p></o:p>
Example: medieval, mediaeval, or mediæval <o:p></o:p>
Example: encyclopedia, encyclopaedia, or encyclopædia <o:p></o:p>
Example: eon or æon <o:p></o:p>
Note: The font character sets which are often used in some browsers do not have the ligature for oe. If your browser is set up to handle it, it would look like the first character in the last word: economy, oeconomy, or œconomy. <o:p></o:p>
Try the Arial, Courier New, Lucida Console, Lucida Sans, Lucida Sans Unicode, Tahoma, Times New Roman, or Verdana fonts for this character. <o:p></o:p>
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Main or Independent Clause <o:p></o:p>
A main clause is a clause that is not introduced by a subordinating term. It does not modify anything, and it can stand alone as a complete sentence. <o:p></o:p>
The main clauses in the first two sentences of this page are italicized. The second sentence has two main clauses, one before the comma and one after. Main clauses are sometimes called principal or independent clauses. <o:p></o:p>
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Misplaced Modifiers <o:p></o:p>
This is a common problem in American speech. Writing has to be more precise than speaking, or it will be misunderstood. <o:p></o:p>
A misplaced modifier is simply a word or phrase describing something but not placed near enough the word it is supposed to modify. The modifying word or phrase is not dangling; no extra words are needed; the modifier is just in the wrong place. <o:p></o:p>
Incorrect: I had to take down the shutters painting the house yesterday.<o:p></o:p>
It sounds like the shutters painted the house! Place the modifying phrase painting the house near or next to the word it is meant to modify. <o:p></o:p>
Correct: Painting the house yesterday, I had to take down the shutters.<o:p></o:p>
Modifier <o:p></o:p>
Modifiers describe a word or make the meaning of the word more specific. They are said to modify the word. <o:p></o:p>
In English there are two parts of speech which are modifiers--adjectives and adverbs. <o:p></o:p>
Adjectives modify nouns and pronouns. Adverbs modify verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs. <o:p></o:p>
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Negative <o:p></o:p>
In grammar a negative is a modifying word or expression used to contradict or deny the truth of a statement. <o:p></o:p>
In English common negatives are no, never, and not. Other words which have negative sense are words like hardly and scarcely. <o:p></o:p>
Nomenclature <o:p></o:p>
Nomenclature means "a system of naming something." <o:p></o:p>
Scientific nomenclature is the system first developed by Carolus Linnaeus to name species using two Latin-rooted words and classify them according to perceived genetic similarity. <o:p></o:p>
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Nominative Absolute <o:p></o:p>
A nominative absolute is a noun phrase that begins or ends a sentence. The phrase has no grammatical connection with the rest of the sentence. Most nominative absolutes contain a participle or participial phrase which modifies the noun or pronoun. <o:p></o:p>
Example: The weather being rainy, we decided to postpone the trip. (Nominative absolute in italics) <o:p></o:p>
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Nominative Case <o:p></o:p>
The nominative case is the form of a noun or pronoun used in the subject or predicate nominative. <o:p></o:p>
In English this is significant only with personal pronouns and the forms of who. <o:p></o:p>
Personal pronouns in the nominative case in modern English are I, you, he, she, it, we, and they. <o:p></o:p>
The word who is also in the nominative case. <o:p></o:p>
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Commas with Nonrestrictive Modifiers <o:p></o:p>
A modifying word, phrase, or clause following a noun is set off by commas if it presents information which is not essential to identify the noun or the meaning of the sentence. <o:p></o:p>
This is called a nonrestrictive modifier, i.e., it does not restrict the meaning of the noun or sentence. <o:p></o:p>
Example: Any student not sitting down will get detention.<o:p></o:p>
(This takes no comma because the phrase not sitting down is necessary to identify the noun. Remove it, and you get something very different: "Any student will get a detention.") <o:p></o:p>
Example: Marcia Gomes, who was not sitting down, just got a detention.<o:p></o:p>
(Here the person is named specifically. We know whom the sentence is about. The clause who was not sitting down does add information, but it is not necessary to identify the noun it modifies. Drop the clause and we still know who got the punishment: "Marcia Gomes just got a detention.") <o:p></o:p>
Sometimes, the punctuation may depend on the situation. For example, if I have just one sister, or the reader already knows whom I am talking about, this sentence is correct: <o:p></o:p>
My sister, Martha, is a nurse.<o:p></o:p>
However, if I have more than one sister and it is not otherwise clear whom I am talking about, her name is essential to identify the sister. <o:p></o:p>
My sister Martha is a nurse.<o:p></o:p>
Or perhaps to make it clearer: <o:p></o:p>
My sister Martha is a nurse; my sister Marianne is a teacher.<o:p></o:p>
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Nonstandard <o:p></o:p>
Nonstandard language or style does not follow the rules of standard language. <o:p></o:p>
Nonstandard language is never appropriate in writing unless it is a deliberate direct quotation of a nonstandard speaker. It usually reflects poorly on the speaker when spoken. <o:p></o:p>
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Object Complement <o:p></o:p>
An object complement is an noun, pronoun, or adjective which follows a direct object and renames it or tells what the direct object has become. It is most often used with verbs of creating or nominating such as make, name, elect, paint, call, etc. <o:p></o:p>
We know there is a difference between calling Mayor Williams and calling Williams mayor or painting a red door and painting a door red. When the word follows the direct object and it tells what the direct object has become, it is the object complement. Sometimes people call it an objective complement. The italicized words on this page are object complements. <o:p></o:p>
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Objective Case <o:p></o:p>
The objective case is the form of a noun or pronoun used in the direct object, indirect object, object of preposition, object complement, and subject of an infinitive. <o:p></o:p>
In English this is significant only with personal pronouns and the forms of who. <o:p></o:p>
Personal pronouns in the objective case in modern English are me, you, him, her, it, us, and them. <o:p></o:p>
The word whom is also in the objective case. <o:p></o:p>
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Onomatopoeia <o:p></o:p>
Onomatopoeia refers to words that sound like the thing or action they name. Examples of onomatopoetic words include buzz, bang, click, and roar. <o:p></o:p>
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Parenthetical Expression <o:p></o:p>
A parenthetical expression is an expression which is inserted into the flow of thought. It may be in the middle of a sentence or between sentences, but it does not deal directly with the topic at hand. <o:p></o:p>
Some short parenthetical expressions like of course are set off by commas, but parenthetical expressions may also be set off by parentheses and dashes. <o:p></o:p>
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Participle and Participial Phrase <o:p></o:p>
A participle is a verb used as an adjective. The are two kinds of participles. The past participle has the past form of the verb which would go with the verb have and would usually end in -ed. The present participle ends in -ing. <o:p></o:p>
A participial phrase is the participle plus any complements and modifiers of the participle and complements. On this page the participles are italicized and the participial phrase is underlined. <o:p></o:p>
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Person <o:p></o:p>
Person refers to the form of a word as it relates to the subject. In English, the form of the word can change with the subject in the present verbs, the past of to be, and with personal pronouns. In English there are three persons. <o:p></o:p>
1. First person refers to the speaker. The pronouns I, me, myself, my, mine, we, us, ourselves, our, and ours are first person. <o:p></o:p>
2. Second person refers to the one being spoken to. The pronouns you, yourself, your, and yours are second person. <o:p></o:p>
3. Third person refers to the one being spoken about. The pronouns he, she, it, him, her, himself, herself, himself, his, her, hers, its, they, them, themselves, their, and theirs are third person. <o:p></o:p>
Example: The first person singular present of to be is I am. <o:p></o:p>
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Phrase <o:p></o:p>
A phrase is a group of words acting as a single part of speech and not containing both a subject and a verb. It is a part of a sentence, and does not express a complete thought. The phrases in the first two sentences of this page are italicized. <o:p></o:p>
The first sentence contains five phrases: "of words," "acting as a single part of speech," "as a single part," "of speech," and "not containing both a subject and a verb." Except for the phrase beginning with as, all the phrases are acting as adjectives. The phrase beginning with as is adverbial. <o:p></o:p>
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Plural <o:p></o:p>
In simplest terms plural means "more than one." <o:p></o:p>
To show that a noun is plural, we normally add an -s or -es to the word. <o:p></o:p>
Example: one dog, two dogs <o:p></o:p>
one bus two buses <o:p></o:p>
Sometimes the spelling rule requires that the consonant be doubled before adding the -es. <o:p></o:p>
Example: one quiz, two quizzes <o:p></o:p>
There are a few irregular plurals such as men, children, women, oxen, and a number of words taken directly from foreign languages such as alumni (plural of alumnus) or media (plural of medium). <o:p></o:p>
We also speak of the plural form of pronouns--that is, pronouns that take the place of plural nouns like we, you, and they. <o:p></o:p>
We also speak of the plural form of verbs--that is, verbs that go with a plural subject. In English this is significant only in the present tense and the past tense of the verb to be. <o:p></o:p>
For example, the third person plural past tense of the verb to be is we were. <o:p></o:p>
For the formation of the plural of letters, symbols, and words as words, see Apostrophes with Plurals of Underlined Items. <o:p></o:p>
EXERCICES /<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-10880.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/forum/archives2/forum-anglais-6236.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-7495.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-8682.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/exercices/exercice-anglais-2/exercice-anglais-36241.php<o:p></o:p>
http://www.anglaisfacile.com/free/news/0gplural.pdf<o:p></o:p>
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Positive Degree <o:p></o:p>
The positive degree of a modifier simply means that there is no comparison being made. <o:p></o:p>
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Possessive Case <o:p></o:p>
The possessive case of a noun or pronoun shows ownership or association. <o:p></o:p>
Nearly all nouns and indefinite pronouns show possession by ending with the s sound. This is spelled with and apostrophe plus an s. <o:p></o:p>
For the rules on this see the "Apostrophes" heading in the Punctuation Contents. <o:p></o:p>
Examples: Francine's sweater
(The sweater owned by Francine.) <o:p></o:p>George's grandfather
(The grandfather associated with George.) <o:p></o:p>Possessives normally modify nouns as in the examples above, but sometimes they stand by themselves as a noun rather than as a modifier. <o:p></o:p>
Example: That sweater is Francine's. <o:p></o:p>
The possessive case of personal pronouns is irregular. Some possessive pronouns like my and your modify nouns. Others, like mine and yours stand alone and do not act as modifiers. <o:p></o:p>
For more on this, see Possessive Pronouns. <o:p></o:p>
Predicate <o:p></o:p>
The predicate of a sentence is that part of the sentence which says something about the subject. It expresses the action of the sentence or the condition of the subject. <o:p></o:p>
The complete predicate contains the verb with its modifiers plus any complements and their modifiers. <o:p></o:p>
The verb is sometimes referred to as the simple predicate. <o:p></o:p>
Some authorities do not consider the complements part of the predicate. <o:p></o:p>
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Predicate Nominative <o:p></o:p>
A predicate nominative is a noun or pronoun which follows the verb and describes or renames the subject. It is another way of naming the subject. It follows a linking verb. The predicate nominatives on this page have been italicized. <o:p></o:p>
²"In regards to" is nonstandard; however even "in regard to" is considered by many to be stilted. When in doubt, use "regarding."<o:p></o:p>
A Note on Into vs. In to and Similar Problems <o:p></o:p>
Many words that are prepositions may be adverbs. This can be confusing when the prepostion to follows on or in or when the preposition on follows up. <o:p></o:p>
The words into, onto, and upon followed by an object are prepositions. <o:p></o:p>
The pairs in to, on to, and up on followed by an object are each made up of an adverb followed by a preposition. The meanings and the grammatical relationships are different from when they are single word prepositions. <o:p></o:p>
Examples: He ran in to the building.
(The adverb in modifies ran; to the building tells where he ran in.)<o:p></o:p>He ran into the building.
(He collided with the building; or, into the building tells us where he ran.)<o:p></o:p>Up on the housetop, reindeer pause...
(High on top of the house...)<o:p></o:p>The toy fell upon the ground.
(Here upon refers just to the relative relationship between the toy and the ground, it has nothing to with height. Things seldom fall up...)<o:p></o:p>The car turned onto Main Street.
(The car turned; onto Main Street tells us where the car turned.)<o:p></o:p>He turned on to Tchaikovsky.
(The adverb on modifies turn; to Tchaikovsky tells us to whom he turned on.)<o:p></o:p>Punctuation <o:p></o:p>
Punctuation is the visual sign which helps a reader distinguish between words and sentences and helps the reader understand the relationships between words. <o:p></o:p>
Technically, capitalizing, spaces between words, and indentations at the start of paragraphs are all forms of punctuation. But usually when we speak of punctuation, we speak of the symbols we use to mark sentences--the punctuation marks. They help the reader understand exactly what the writer's intentions are. <o:p></o:p>
In English the following punctuation marks are normally used: period, question mark, exclamation point, comma, semicolon, colon, quotation marks, single quotation marks, italics, underlining, dash, hyphen, parentheses, brackets, ellipsis, and virgule. <o:p></o:p>
Question<o:p></o:p>
A question is a sentence, a phrase or even just a gesture that shows that the speaker or writer wants the reader or listener to supply them with some information, to perform a task or in some other way satisfy the request.<o:p></o:p>
There are a number of different types of question used in English, including the following <o:p></o:p>
An academic question is one whose answer may be of interest but is of no practical use or importance.<o:p></o:p>
An embedded question is a part of a sentence that would be a question if it were on its own, but is not a question in the context of the sentence: <o:p></o:p>
I don't know where she has gone.
Could you tell me where the bank is.<o:p></o:p><o:p></o:p>
A hypothetical question is one asked out of interest, as the answer will have no effect on the situation.<o:p></o:p>
A leading question is one that suggests an answer, that implies that there is a proper answer. The term comes from law, where the courts insist that questions that suggest answers are not asked because they restrict the right of witnesses to speak freely.<o:p></o:p>
A question tag can be made by making a statement and putting an auxiliary verb and a pronoun at the end: <o:p></o:p>
QUESTION TAG EXAMPLES:<o:p></o:p>
- She's coming, isn't she?<o:p></o:p>
- She wasn't there, was she?<o:p></o:p>
A rhetorical question is one that requires no answer because the answer is obvious and doesn't need to be stated . The speaker (of the rhetorical question) is not looking for an answer but is making some kind of a point, as in an argument.<o:p></o:p>
A tag question (also known as a tail question) can be made by making a statement and putting an auxiliary verb and a pronoun at the end:<o:p></o:p>
She's coming, isn't she?<o:p></o:p>
She wasn't there, was she?<o:p></o:p>
Yes/No Question<o:p></o:p>
A Yes/No Question is a question that can be answered with yes or no. <o:p></o:p>
They normally begin with an auxiliary verb or a modal verb:<o:p></o:p>
Do you want to come?
Have you seen her?
Can you come?
Will they be interested?<o:p></o:p>They can also begin with main verbs like be and have:<o:p></o:p>
Is she in?<o:p></o:p>
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Quizzes<o:p></o:p>
Beginner:<o:p></o:p>
- How<o:p></o:p>
- Question Words<o:p></o:p>
- Questions- Short Answers<o:p></o:p>
Intermediate:<o:p></o:p>
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Redundant <o:p></o:p>
Redundant means "needlessly repetitive." <o:p></o:p>
Redundancy is the noun form of the word. <o:p></o:p>
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In addition, these pronouns may take the suffixes -ever and -soever. <o:p></o:p>
Examples (relative pronouns italicized): <o:p></o:p>
He who laughs last laughs best. (Adjective clause) <o:p></o:p>
I cannot believe that he said it. (Noun clause) <o:p></o:p>
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Run-On Sentences <o:p></o:p>
A run-on sentence consists of two or more main clauses that are run together without proper punctuation. Sometimes even sentences which are technically correct are easier to read if they are made into shorter sentences. We often speak in run-on sentences, but we make pauses and change our tone so people can understand us. But when we write, no one can hear us, so sometimes we must break our sentences into shorter units so that they do not sound run-on. <o:p></o:p>
Incorrect: The boy showed us his tickets someone gave them to him. <o:p></o:p>
Correct: The boy showed us his tickets. Someone gave them to him. <o:p></o:p>
Incorrect: We often speak in run-on sentences, but we make pauses and change our tone so people can understand us, but when we write, no one can hear us, so sometimes we must break our sentences into shorter units so that they do not sound run-on.
(Technically punctuated OK, but too long to be easily understood. See better sentence structure above.) <o:p></o:p><o:p></o:p>
A schwa sound can be represented by any vowel. In most dialects, for example, the schwa sound is found in the following words: <o:p></o:p>
The a is schwa in adept. <o:p></o:p>
The e is schwa in synthesis. <o:p></o:p>
The i is schwa in decimal. <o:p></o:p>
The o is schwa in harmony. <o:p></o:p>
The u is schwa in medium. <o:p></o:p>
The y is schwa in syringe. <o:p></o:p>
Authorities vary somewhat in the range of what is considered a schwa sound, but the above examples are generally accepted. <o:p></o:p>
Some browser fonts will show the schwa symbol here: ə. Others may show either a box, a question mark, or capital Y. <o:p></o:p>
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Sentence <o:p></o:p>
A sentence is a group of words communicating a complete thought. A sentence always contains a subject and a predicate. <o:p></o:p>
Singular <o:p></o:p>
In grammar, the word singular means "the form of a word representing or associated with one person, place, or thing." The term is normally used in contrast to plural. <o:p></o:p>
A singular noun or pronoun represents one person, place, or thing. <o:p></o:p>
Examples: dog, child, I, he <o:p></o:p>
The singular form of a verb goes with a singular subject. <o:p></o:p>
Example: He is coming here very soon.
(The verb is said to be "in the third person singular.") <o:p></o:p>A Minor Sentence is one that does not necessarily have a main verb in it, but which can be understood as a complete unit of meaning. <o:p></o:p>
Example:<o:p></o:p>
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'What time are you leaving?'
'Three.'<o:p></o:p><o:p></o:p>
Here, Three is a minor sentence; it has no verb, but the listener will understand that the person means I am leaving at three o'clock.<o:p></o:p>
Sentence fragment is another term with the same meaning.<o:p></o:p>
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A major sentence is a term used for a full sentence, containing a Main Verb and a Subject that is either present or readily identifiable.<o:p></o:p>
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The topic sentence is a sentence that sets out the main idea or topic of a paragraph. It is often the first sentence especially when arguing a point where it may well be followed by further information, examples etc.. If the writing is exploring a point, it frequently comes as the last sentence, drawing a conclusion from the argument.<o:p></o:p>
Cleft Sentences<o:p></o:p>
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A cleft sentence is one where the original clause is divided into two clauses: <o:p></o:p>
John took the money.<o:p></o:p>
It was John who took the money.
It was the money that John took.<o:p></o:p>The original sentence has a single clause, but in the two cleft sentences, there are two clauses and this can have the effect of changing the emphasis to focus on John in the first and the money in the second.<o:p></o:p>
Sentence Fragment<o:p></o:p>
A Sentence fragment does not necessarily have a main verb in it, but can be understood as a complete unit of meaning.<o:p></o:p>
Example:<o:p></o:p>
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'Who did you see?'
'Tom.'<o:p></o:p><o:p></o:p>
Here, Tom is a minor sentence; it has no verb, but the listener will understand that the person means I saw Tom.<o:p></o:p>
Minor sentence is another term with the same meaning.<o:p></o:p>
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Syllable <o:p></o:p>
A syllable is a word or part of a word that can be pronounced with one impulse from the voice. A syllable always contains a vowel sound, and most syllables have consonants associated with the vowel. <o:p></o:p>
In English, some syllables in words or sentences are stressed with more force from the voice than others. Those stressed syllables are called accented syllables. <o:p></o:p>
Examples of words divided into syllables: <o:p></o:p>
Ex-am-ples of words di-vi-ded in-to syl-la-bles. <o:p></o:p>
Examples of words divided into syllables with accents: <o:p></o:p>
Ex-am´ples of words´ di-vi´ded in´to syl´la-bles with ac´cents. <o:p></o:p>
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Standard English <o:p></o:p>
Standard English, also known as Standard Written English or SWE, is the form of English most widely accepted as being clear and proper. <o:p></o:p>
Publishers, writers, educators, and others have over the years developed a consensus of what standard English consists of. It includes word choice, word order, punctuation, and spelling. <o:p></o:p>
Standard English is especially helpful when writing because it maintains a fairly uniform standard of communication which can be understood by all speakers and users of English regardless of differences in dialect, pronunciation, and usage. This is why it is sometimes called Standard Written English. <o:p></o:p>
There are a few minor differences between standard usage in England and the United States, but these differences do not significantly affect communication in the English language. <o:p></o:p>
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Series <o:p></o:p>
In grammar, a series is a group of three or more words, phrases, or clauses in a row. <o:p></o:p>
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Stilted <o:p></o:p>
A stilted writing or speaking style uses long, overblown words when simpler words would be clearer and more direct. <o:p></o:p>
Example: A teacher who says, "Procure for yourselves an implement of ecriture," instead of, "Take out a pen or pencil." <o:p></o:p>
Subject of an Infinitive <o:p></o:p>
While the word subject in grammar normally applies to a sentence, it is possible for an infinitive to have a subject. <o:p></o:p>
When an infinitive or an infinitive phrase follows certain verbs, the action of the infinitive may be done by a different person or thing than the subject of the sentence. This doer of the infinitive's action follows the verb and comes before the infinitive. This is known as the subject of the infinitive. <o:p></o:p>
Keep in mind that when an infinitive follows a verb, sometimes the word to is dropped from the infinitive. <o:p></o:p>
A personal pronoun is in the objective case when it is a subject of the infinitive. <o:p></o:p>
Examples: We wanted Bill to go to the airport. <o:p></o:p>
Simon helped me to record the data. <o:p></o:p>
No one saw the prisoner escape. <o:p></o:p>
Simon helped me record the data.
(In the last two examples, the word to has been dropped.) <o:p></o:p><o:p></o:p>
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Subject <o:p></o:p>
The subject of a sentence or clause is the part of the sentence or clause about which something is being said. It is usually the doer of the action. It is a noun or a pronoun. All of the subjects on this page are italicized. <o:p></o:p>
The Subjunctive Mood <o:p></o:p>
A verb is in the subjunctive mood when it expresses a condition which is doubtful or not factual. It is most often found in a clause beginning with the word if. It is also found in clauses following a verb that expresses a doubt, a wish, regret, request, demand, or proposal. <o:p></o:p>
These are verbs typically followed by clauses that take the subjunctive: <o:p></o:p>
ask, demand, determine, insist, move, order, pray, prefer, recommend, regret, request, require, suggest, and wish. <o:p></o:p>
In English there is no difference between the subjunctive and normal, or indicative, form of the verb except for the present tense third person singular and for the verb to be. <o:p></o:p>
The subjunctive for the present tense third person singular drops the -s or -es so that it looks and sounds like the present tense for everything else. <o:p></o:p>
The subjunctive mood of the verb to be is be in the present tense and were in the past tense, regardless of what the subject is. <o:p></o:p>
Superlative Degree <o:p></o:p>
Adjectives or adverbs ending in -est or modified by the word most compare three or more items. This is known as the superlative degree. <o:p></o:p>
Syntax<o:p></o:p>
Syntax is the study of the rules governing sentence structure, the way words work together to make up a sentence.<o:p></o:p>
Wordiness <o:p></o:p>
Wordiness, or being wordy simply means using too many words to say something. Usually there is a simpler way of saying the same thing. <o:p></o:p>
Example: Work was canceled today due to the fact that it snowed. (Wordy) <o:p></o:p>
Work was canceled today because it snowed. (Clearer and more direct) <o:p></o:p>
Exercices d'anglais<o:p></o:p>
Ces exercices sont également accessibles à partir des cours :
- Index des exercices
- Present Simple & Progressive I, II
- Present Perfect & Past Tenses I, II<o:p></o:p>
- Past Perfect — le plus-que-parfait
- The Future I, II<o:p></o:p>
- Passive Voice I, II — la voix passive
- Infinitive & Gerund I, II, III — infinitif ou gérondif
- Modals — les auxiliaires modaux
- The 3 Conditionals — Les 3 conditionnels :
- Le 1er conditionnel
- Le 2ème conditionnel, l'irréel du présent
- Le 3ème conditionnel, l'irréel du passé
- Used to — la forme fréquentative
- Pronouns & Possessives — pronoms personnels, possessifs, réfléchis et réciproques, et adjectifs possessifs
- Relative Pronouns & Clauses — Pronoms relatifs et subordonnées relatives
- Compound Adjectives — adjectifs composés
- Comparative Adjectives — adjectifs comparatifs
- Reported Speech — discours indirect<o:p></o:p>
- For & Since
- Phrasal Verbs I, II — verbes à particule
- Prepositions
- Question Tags I, II<o:p></o:p>
- Word Game 1, 2 — jeux de mots
- Word Count 1 — écouter et compter les mots
- Irregular Verbs — Verbes irréguliers :
<o:p></o:p>
<o:p></o:p>
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